Міністерство освіти і науки України
Управління освіти і науки Чернігівської
облдержадміністрації
Чернігівське територіальне відділення МАН України
Відділення: мовознавство
Секція: англійська мова
КАЛЬКИ В БРИТАНСЬКОМУ ГАЗЕТНОМУ ДИСКУРСІ: ФУНКЦІОНАЛЬНИЙ
АСПЕКТ
Роботу виконала:
Луценко Лілія
Володимирівна,
учениця 11-А класу
Варвинської
районної гімназії
Науковий керівник:
Луценко Тетяна
Володимирівна,
вчитель
англійської мови
Варвинської
районної гімназії
Варва - 2015
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………… 4
CHAPTER 1. Newspaper
Style as one of the Functional Styles in English………………………. 25
CHAPTER 2. Classification of Calques
2.1 Classification
of Calques According to the Position in the News Story………………. 29
2.3 Semantic Classification of Calques……………………………………………………..
35
2.4 Classification of Calques in accord with the
Type of Meaning………………………... 38
2.5
Classification of Calques in accord with their Structure……………………………… 42
……………………………………………………………………44
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS……………………………………………………………… 45
РЕЗЮМЕ…………………………………………………………………………………… 47
LIST OF LITERATURE…………………………………………………………………… 48
LIST OF DICTIONARIES………………………………………………………………… 51
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIVE LITERATURE………………………………………………… 51
SUPPLEMENT……………………………………………………………………………… 52
INTRODUCTION
Calques as a linguistic phenomenon exist as long as
the language contact exists and there is hardly such a language in the world
without calques.
The vocabulary
of Modern English is extremely heterogeneous from the etymological point of
view. Borrowed words serve to satisfy genuine needs for expressing new ideas,
especially abstract and special scientific concepts. Calques are cases of
borrowing which are great sources of enlarging the vocabulary of the language.
The topicality of the research of this
very layer of English vocabulary lies in the fact that calquing belongs to the
insufficiently studied aspects in modern linguistics. Till now there is no
unity of opinion about the nature of calquing, the place of calques in the
system of vocabulary and in the system of linguistics. That is why there
appeared a deeper need of investigation of calques, their usage and functions.
The purpose of the work is to investigate the functioning of calques in
British newspaper discourse. To achieve the aim we have to solve the following tasks:
-
to
analyze definitions and peculiarities of calques as viewed by different
scholars;
-
to
analyze the communicative aim of modern newspaper discourse;
-
singling
out and analyzing the instances of calques in British newspapers;
-
to
work out own classifications of calques;
The object of the research is calques:
separate words, set expressions, phraseological units, aphorisms and quotes
calqued from different languages.
The subject of the investigation is to
study the functioning of calques in British newspaper discourse analysis.
The material of the research is a sample of 50 articles taken from different
British newspapers: the Times, the Guardian, the Observer, the Financial Times,
the Telegraph, the Independent etc. Besides, we have analyzed more than 320
instances of calques in general.
The methods of our research are presupposed by
the tasks and the aim of the research work: the method of
theoretical analysis, which lies in the investigation of the
literature concerning the question; the method of linguistic description, which
aims at definition and classification of BUs; the method of
textual analysis, which helps to determine semantic meaning of
BUs in a definite newspaper text; the method of quantitative analysis
used to calculate the percentage of occurrence of instances in different
classifications.
The scientific novelty lies in the
attempt of classifying calques used in British newspapers, on the bases of the
sample, in accord with their structure, semantic side and type of meaning; to
indicate their influence on the language of newspaper articles and on the
reader.
The theoretical value of the
investigation is determined by the fact that the results of the research can be used
while teaching different aspects of theory and practice of modern English.
The practical value lies in the fact that the results of the research can
be useful in further investigation of the subject and in studying Lexicology,
Phraseology and Stylistics, Discourse Analysis. The students can enlarge their
vocabulary and extend their knowledge of the peculiarities of newspaper style.
The research paper consists of two chapters. In the introduction the topicality,
the object, subject and the aims of the given research, the novelty, the
methodology, and the material are determined.
In the First Chapter the characteristic features of
the newspaper style are represented. 50 articles different in spheres and
topics, containing the instances of calques are analyzed from the view point of
their emotiveness.
In the Second Chapter we analyzed the usage of calques
in British newspaper discourse. We managed to work out our own classifications
in accord with: 1) position in the article; 2) semantic side of calques; 3)
type of meaning; 4) structure of calques.
The Conclusions
deal with the results of our research and its evaluation.
Chapter 1
Newspaper Style as one of the Functional Styles in
English
English newspaper writing
dates from the 17th century. The first newspapers carried only news, without
comments, as commenting was considered to be against the principles of
journalism. By the 19th century, newspaper language was recognized as a
particular variety of style, characterized by a specific communicative purpose
and its own system of language means [21, p. 306].
Not all the printed matter
found in newspapers comes under newspaper style. The modern newspaper carries
material of an extremely diverse character. On the pages of a newspaper one
finds not only news and comments on it, but also stories and poems, crossword
puzzles, and the like. Since these serve the purpose of entertaining the
reader, they cannot be considered specimens of newspaper style. Nor can
articles in special fields, such as science and technology, art, literature,
etc. be classed as belonging to newspaper style.
Since the primary function of
a newspaper is to impart information, only printed matter serving this purpose
and providing the reader with an evaluation of the information published that
can be regarded as belonging to newspaper style.
Thus,
English newspaper style may be defined as a style of interrelated lexical,
phrase-logical and grammatical means which is perceived by the community speaking the language as a
separate unity that basically serves the purpose of informing and instructing
the reader [21, p. 307].
According
to J. Richardson newspaper discourse has some very specific textual
characteristics, some very specific methods of text production and consumption,
and is defined by a particular set of relationships between itself and other
agencies of symbolic and material power. [29, p. 11]
Newspaper publicistic writing bears the
stamp of its own style. Though it seems natural to consider newspaper articles,
editorials included, as coming within the system of English newspaper style, it
is necessary to note that such articles are an intermediate phenomenon
characterized by a combination of styles. But it is possible to distinguish
some general features of newspaper style.
Characteristic features of newspaper style can
be subdivided into two main parts: linguistic and extralinguistic. It is
important to distinguish extralinguistic factors in a separate group as one of
the main features of the style is its tendency to bringing influence, i.e. not
only to impart information to a reader precisely, easily understood and
vividly, but also to call forth certain attitude towards events, to incite a
reader to actions, to a need of taking some social standpoint, to change or
mold reader's ideas. Apart from such main extralinguistic factors as form, type
and kind of language the following factors are taken into consideration: sphere
of communication, specificity of a media channel, also peculiarities of an
audience and non-verbal communicative means [6, p. 145-150].
From the point of the vocabulary used in
newspaper writing, it is neutral and literary. Linguistic features are carried
out through the intensive use of:
a) Special political and economic terms, e.g., constitution, president, General
Assembly, gross output, per capita production, by-election.
b) Non-term
political vocabulary: public,
nation-wide, progressive, unity, peace, representative. A characteristic feature of political vocabulary is
that the borderline between terms and non-terms is less distinct than in the
vocabulary of other special fields. The semantic structure of some words
comprises both terms and non-terms, e.g.,
crisis, agreement, progressive, nationwide,
unity.
c) Lofty, bookish
words including certain phrases based on metaphors and thus emotionally
colored: war
hysteria, escalation of war,
overwhelming majority, a storm of applause,
post attack cleanup.
d) Newspaper
cliches, i.e., stereotyped expressions, commonplace phrases
familiar to the reader, e.g., public opinion, free markets, long-term agreements, a melting pot, to
cast a veto over, crucial/pressing problems, zero tolerance, political
correctness, to go postal
(extremely hostile).
e) Abbreviations. News items, press reports and headlines are full of abbreviations of
various kinds. Among them abbreviated terms - names of organizations, public
and state bodies, political associations, industrial and other companies,
various offices, etc. known by their initials are very common; e.g., UNO, EEC (European Economic Community),
NATO, TUC (Trades Union Congress), FO (Foreign Office).
f) Neologisms. The newspaper is very quick to react to any new development in the life
of society, in science and technology. Hence, neologisms make their way into
the language of the newspaper very easily and often even spring up on newspaper
pages. Now, in the early 21st century, neologisms relating to computers and the
Internet outnumber all others, for example,
cybersickness (a feeling of illness caused by using a computer
for long periods of time), keypal
(someone with whom one regularly exchanges e-mail),
online auction, access provider,PDA (Personal
digital assistant),
McDonaldization. Coca-CoUmizotion.
g)
Foreign words. These have come from different languages. Some are traditionally used
in newspaper writing, others have recently come from the areas of new
technology (computers. Internet, business, entertainment and changes in
society), for example, beaucoup
(a lot of money; from French); ad hoc
(specialized; from Latin); bona fide
(real, true and not intended to deceive somebody (from Latin). Besides, calques
or cases of translation loans are often used in newspaper discourse: vicious circle. Heel of Achilles,
scapegoat. Superman, to give the green light etc. [21, p. 308].
Some authors suggest also such
characteristic of newspaper style as Terminological variety: scientific,
sports, political, technical, etc.; numerous proper names, toponyms,
anthroponyms, names of enterprises, institutions, international words, dates
and figures; abstract notion words, elevated and bookish words [7, p. 148].
Another
peculiarity concerns the headlines of news items, which apart from giving
information about the subject-matter, also carry a considerable amount of
appraisal (the size and placement of the headline, the use of emotionally
colored words and elements of
emotive syntax), thus indicating an interpretation of the facts in the news item that follows
[21, p. 307], frequent use of pun, violated phraseology, vivid stylistic
devices in headlines serve to attract reader's attention and make him read the
article [14. p. 78].
In the process of our research we analyzed the cases using such popular
British newspapers as The Times, The
Guardian, The Independent, The Telegraph, The Sunday Times etc. As far as the main aim of our research is to analyze
the f'unctioning of calques in newspaper discourse and work out our own
classification, we have made a sample of 50 articles containing calques. We
didn't limit ourselves in the choice of spheres and topics
of articles and analyzed the instances of using calques in all kinds of
articles. The method enables to
get the quantitative results and, thus, form the whole conception about the
functioning of calques in British newspaper discourse.
Chapter 2. Classification of Calques
2.1. Classification of Calques According to the Position in the News
Story
Foreign words transpire into native word-stock.
Calqued mythological and biblical images, idioms, quotes, sayings and turns of
phrase have quite naturally found their way into everyday life as well as into
literary forms of expression. This may be explained through the fact that calques,
bearing the stamp of denoting a new, unknown object or process initially, are
now full-fledged, stable units of English vocabulary.
Having read the above-mentioned articles and while
making a sample, we found a lot of cases when calques were used by the authors
of the articles. Of course, a large number of articles crammed with calques are
dedicated to the problems of every-day life, expressing
commonplace phenomena. But still calques frequently occur in the articles about
politics, finance, sport, culture, literature,
etc. which are of great interest for us.
In our paper we will distribute calques in accord with
their position in the news story and work out our own classifications of calques
with regard to different principles: according to their structure, in accord to
the semantic side and type of meaning.
First we shall speak about the instances of calques used in British newspaper discourse according to their position in
the article:
1) Calques used in headlines. The
cases when calques are used in headlines
are very frequent.
Having analyzed calques from the positional criterion, we found that 30% of
calques are used in headlines (Fig. 2.1.). Further examples taken from the
sample are:
a) Bloody
Sunday paras acted 'like Nazi stormtroopers’,says colonel. (The Times, June 17, 2010). The article runs about the
paratroopers who killed innocent civilians on Bloody Sunday and acted like Nazi
stormtroopers. Compering troops with stormtroopers (members of the Nazi SA) the
author emphasizes their especial violent attitude towards the innocent people. It
was mentioned that, nevertheless, no one was going to call for their
prosecution. The calque attracts the reader’s attention to the article and
appeals foe peoples’ feeling of justice.
b)
'Devil's Advocate' and
defender of Saddam Hussein is arrested. (The Independent, February
16, 2011). The article runs about a celebrity lawyer whose clients have
included Saddam Hussein. Giovanni Di Stefano was held at his home night over
fraud allegations in the UK. Being an advocate for notorious people, the author
names him correspondingly. The use of this calque-idiom in the headline
attracts the readers' attention to the article and the personality mentioned.
c) After
Greenspan, the deluge? (The Observer, October 30, 2005). Words "after
me the deluge" are attributed to Louis XV. The author of the article reports
that the state of economy under the chairmanship of the US Federal Reserve
Greenspan is left in a stagnant condition. Nevertheless, it is the new head who
is accused. The initial words are paraphrased in such a way that they emphasize
the real culprit and point that, actually, he doesn't care much in what state
he has left affairs.
d)
Anti-cuts
protesters are living in cloud cuckoo land. (The Telegraph, November 9, 2011). The phrase to live in "cloud
cuckoo land" means that one doesn't understand what a situation is really
like, but thinks that it is much better than it is. The article is about the
unreasonable claims of students about the government cuts. The author uses the
calqued phrase to stress on the fact that protesters don't know the whole
economic situation but protest only for the sake of the protest itself, thus
attracting the readers' attention to the article.
e)
The
Caesars of monetary policy must be above suspicion. (The Financial Times, January 13, 2012).
"Caesar's wife must be above suspicion" - the original saying. In the
article it is mentioned that the chairman of the Swiss National Bank resigned
because of the appearance of his financial dealings. Though he imposed the
toughest capital standards which were well
regarded. The author puts to the same footing his monetary policy and financial
regulations with the Caesar's one and just as Caesar's wife must be above
suspicion, policy must be either.
Here are other
examples of calques used in the headlines of the articles from the sample:
Dave Attwood ready to take the bull by the horns in England campaign (The
Telegraph, July 03, 2010). A cross to bear
(The Guardian, June 22, 2004). Final resting place
of Caravaggio's remains a bone of contention (The Times, June
22, 2010). Housing payout for struggling families is
'drop in the ocean' (The Guardian, November 3,
2010). Tell voters the truth. Or reap what you row
(The Times, June 22, 2011). As we can see from the above-mentioned examples calques
used in the headlines are vivid and eye-catching. In such a way they perform
the main function of the headlines - to attract the reader's attention to the
article and make him read it.
2) 14% of calques are used in subheads (Fig. 2.1.). Consider the
following examples: There is one obvious solution to
the bail-out paralysis facing Greece, and it is gaining traction. The debt
buy-back. But, as with anything euro-related, striking an agreement is proving
more troublesome than navigating the path between Scylla and Charybdis (The Telegraph, July 14, 2011). (Scylla and Charybdis" is used to refer to a situation in which
an attempt to avoid one danger increases the risk from another danger). People
power has seen off another Tesco - but is a pyrrhic victory in store? (The Telegraph, November 17, 2011). (The phrase is used to
describe a victory that is not
worth winning because the winner has suffered or lost so much in winning it). Abandon all hope,
ye who enter here.
Dante's hell is generally a good description of Italian politics. (The
Financial Times, February 3, 2008). (These words
are taken from Dante's Divine Comedy where they are used with reference to
hell, but in the subhead they are used with reference to Italian politics). A vicar is preaching a
bizarre self-help gospel to cash- strapped parishioners... blessed are those
who steal from large chain stores. (The Mirror, December 4, 2009). (The word
"gospel" means a set of ideas that somebody believes in and tries to
persuade others to accept it). It is difficult to feel other than a deep
and satisfying sense of schadenfreude over the regulatory attack on Goldman
Sachs. As you sow, so shall you reap. (The Daily Telegraph, April
20, 2010). (The phrase "as you sow, so shall you reap" used to say
that a person gets what he gives).
The main
requirement to newspaper subheads is conciseness. That is why, judging from the
above-mentioned instances of using calques in subheads of newspaper articles we
can come to the conclusion that calques are a good means of laconic expressing
of thoughts and it can sometimes substitute the whole sentence giving the
utterance additional shade of meaning.
3)
Having analyzed the articles we found that 22% (Fig 2.1.) of calques are used in the beginning of the article: British teenagers are trapped in a "vicious
circle of monolingualism report warned yesterday as figures showed English youngsters are among the
worst in Europe at foreign languages. (The Independent, February
15, 2013). (The phrase "vicious circle" used to describe a situation
in which an attempt to resolve one problem creates new problems that lead back
to the original situation). "Fortune favours the bold," the Bank of Canada governor
said today, exhorting Canadian businesses to invest and engage with the new
'multi-polar' world, and promising to deliver price stability in return. (The
Financial Times, June 16, 2010). There were, of
course, many myths propagated by the right after the death of Margaret Thatcher
last month. One of the most pernicious was that, by allowing council tenants to
buy their own homes, she had somehow provided a gateway for working-class
people to a land of milk and honey. (The Observer, May 4, 2013). Fred Goodwin has been unfairly made the scapegoat
for the banking collapse of 2008, according to his former mentor and the man
who recruited him to the Royal Bank of Scotland. (The
Times, April 27, 2013).
All the given examples of calques serve to make the language of the article
more colourful and expressive.
4) In the middle of the article calques are used in 22 % of all
cases (Fig 2.1.). Here are some examples we found in British newspapers: "It’s like
crying wolf.”
said one soldier. 'After a few of those you no longer believe it. (The Telegraph,
November 5, 2012).
America and Israel's shared commitment to
stopping Iran from getting nuclear weapons only highlights the realpolitik behind the reinforced bonds
between these two governments. But this is not just a marriage of
convenience - it is rooted in shared values. (The
Telegraph. March 10, 2013). In fact I have always been rather proud of my single-yet-practical
status, feeling invincible in a world full of Doubting Thomases when the
washing machine grinds to a halt and I think, airily, 'Oh I suppose I'll just
have to change the filter'. (The Observer, May 24, 2002). The Brothers' Circle, a multiethnic criminal group based informer
Soviet Union countries that the Treasury said had an ideology based on the
"thief-in-law” tradition, which seeks to spread their brand
of criminal influence around the world. (The
Financial Times, July 25, 2011). In the
given examples the following phrases were used: to cry wolf
- to give a false alarm, marriage of convenience - a marriage based on expediency
rather than on love, Doubting Thomas - a skeptical person,
thief-in-law - a criminal who obeys the
Thieves' Code. These calque-phrases serve a good means of making the language
of the article more colourful as well as standing at the beginning of the
article which is proved by the same percentage.
5) After reading the newspaper
articles 12 % of caiques were found to be used at the end of the articles (Fig.
2.1.). The examples are as follows:
a) Mussolini's birthplace of Predappio is currently awash with Fascist
trinkets, pseudo-Roman gewgaws and other Blackshirt
memorabilia. Whether Mussolini revisionism is the song and dance of a minority
or something more widespread and dangerous is hard to say. (The Financial Times, December
14, 2012). (The word "Blackshirt" means a member of a fascist
organization).
b)All
the conscientious objectors I met have the same reluctant attitude to their
public exposure. But they also have a quiet, inspiring certainty. As Hinzman
says, "A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step."
(The
Guardian, June 17,2004).
c) The
die was cast in 2010, and this is but another step on the journey chosen
then. The game is far from over, but Mr. Osborne is very reliant on a
spontaneous recovery in private spending, of the type now happening in the US.
There is little sign of that, yet. (The Financial Times, March
20, 2013). (The
phrase "the die is cast" means the decision that commits a person
irrevocably to an action has been taken).
d)The writing was on the wall for the empire however. In South Africa the
forerunner of the African National Congress had just been established. (The Morning Star, January 03, 2013). (The
phrase "the writing is on the wall" means that there are clear signs
that something will fail or no longer exist).
All the above-mentioned
examples of calques used at the end of the article summarize the information
given and make the reader memorize it.
So, we can make the conclusion,
that authors use calques in the news stories in different positions in order to
produce a certain effect: in headlines and subheads - to attract reader's
attention, that is why the percentage of calques used in headlines is the
highest, at the beginning and in the middle of the news story - to hold the
attention and at the end of the news story - to make him memorize the
information.
Additionally, they make the language more
emotionally coloured. Quantitative indices of percentage of cases of using calques
in different positions in the article are given in the Figure 2.1.
Position in the
article.
 |
|
Figure 2.1. Position in the article
Headlines
Beginning
of the article
Middle of the article
Subheads
End
of the article
|
2.2. Semantic Classification of Calques
In the
process of our research we have found the cases of using calques in direct and
figurative meanings. We have worked out the classification of calques according
to their semantic side. The results are given in the Figure 2.2. Semantic
meaning of calques.
1) Calques used in direct meaning. The number of
such cases is relatively low - only 14% of calques are used in direct meaning. (Fig. 2.2.). The
examples are: But with the
great colonial hangover came the inferiority complex that most South
Asians have in which lighter skin is superior to darker skin; that brave
foreign invaders are superior to local, conquered inhabitants. (The Independent, December 4, 2012). (The phrase inferiority complex means a
mental disorder.). A thought
experiment about a classroom full of chimpanzees casts light on the origins of
human altruism. (The Guardian, July 30,
2009). (“Thought experiment" is an experiment carried out only in
the imagination). If the movement can
convert its polemical slogan into a political standpoint, no authority
will be able to resist coordinated action (The Guardian, November
22, 2011). Stark lessons in mother
tongues (The Guardian, December 9, 2009). Investors:
the dog days of summer are over. (The Times, August 22,
2012). (The phrase "dog days" means the hottest period of the year). ...'Caveat emptor" or "let the buyer
beware" is the phrase those selling secondhand homes are most indebted to.
It means the onus is on the buyer to check what they are buying before
committing their money. (The Sunday Times, March 23, 2003). (The
phrase "let the buyer beware" means a principle in commerce that the
buyer alone is responsible for assessing the quality of a purchase before
buying). In the case of a direct use of calques their meaning don't change and
can be easily perceived without the context.
2) The occurrence of calques with figurative meaning
is much higher - 86% of all calques. (Fig. 2.2,). Having read newspapers we
found a lot of examples:
a) The blue blood that runs through
the world's oldest pencils. (The Times, October 10, 2011). The
phrase "blue blood" means royal or aristocratic descent, a person. In
the article it is used with the reference to the company as if it is a living
being. The article runs about the history of the company and its owners.
b) AMG Ever since it minced into the
marketplace 16 years ago, Mercedes' little SLK has been the world's only
transgender car. Even though it was born with an Adam's apple, dressed
in shorts and trained to use the urinals, it has always been as girlie as a
pink bedroom full of soft toys. (The Sunday Times, April 29,
2012). In the article the calque-phrase "Adam's apple" is used with
regard to a car underlining that it was made as a car for men comprising
correspondent features but the car has also met the demands of females
successfully.
c) It is easy to overestimate
the impact of ideas on politics, and for every Stalin or Pol Pot in history,
forcing his people in the Procrustean bed of ideology, history offers
literally thousands of good or merely average leaders who muddled along to more
or less positive effect. (The Guardian, May 10,2012).
d) 'Amyloidosis hang over my head like the sword of
Damocles'. (The Times, November 13,
2010). "Sword of Damocles" - a bad or unpleasant thing that might
happen at any time. In the article the phrase used denotes a sudden illness
which affected the woman.
e) Austria go for Britain's Achilles heel. (The Morning
Star, September 22, 2004). The successes of Britain in tennis are not
significant which makes it its weak point at Davis Cup World Group play-off in
Austria.
Abandon hope of reading
anything remotely original, all ye who enter here. That pre-emptive warning
may be implicit in the byline above, but I make it explicit today because what
you are about to enter is the tragically unlost Danteian tenth circle of hell
that is Mr. Tony Blair. (The Independent, July 2012). The quote is
used to denote the ultimate negative attitude towards Tony Blair regarding him
to the tenth circle of hell. In Dante's "Divine Comedy" there are 9
circles. Therefore the politician is treated as the greatest sinner.
g) Housing payout for struggling families is 'drop in the ocean'. (The Guardian,
November 18, 2010). The calque-phrase
denotes an amount of something that is too small or unimportant to make any
real difference to a situation. In the article it indicates that the payout for
those who were affected by cuts is really small and it won't help the families
anyway.
As we
can see from the
results of our research and the examples provided calques are used mainly figuratively rather
than directly (Fig. 2.2.).
Direct
Figurative
|
Figure 2.2. Semantic meaning of calques
 |
2. 3.
Classification of Calques in Accord with the Type of Meaning
In the process of our research
we have noticed that calques have definite shade of
meaning, either positive, or negative. The results of analysis are given in
Figure 2.3. Type of meaning. 28 % of calques
are used in positive context, the examples are the following:
a) This was a night
on which England combined the sublime with the ridiculous — and the sublime won
out, thanks to a late goal made by Theo Walcott and executed in wonderful
fashion by Danny Wei beck. (The Times, June 15, 2012). The
original phrase is: there is only one step from the sublime to the ridiculous.
In its initial meaning it is rather negative, but in this very case it is
understood from the context that the calque bears positive meaning.
b) "Fortune
favours the bold."
the Bank of Canada governor said today, exhorting Canadian businesses to invest
and engage with the new ‘muti-polar’ world, and promising to deliver price
stability in return.(The Financial Times, June 16, 2010).
c)...shadow
chancellor, Ed Balls, once remarked that it would require a superman to take on
the role of governor. We shall find out soon whether or not Mark Carney is that
superman. (The
Financial Times, February 14, 2013).
d)
A vicar is preaching a bizarre self-help gospel to
cash-strapped parishioners... blessed are those who steal from large chain
stores. (The Mirror, December 4, 2009).
e) If
the movement can convert its polemical slogan into a political standpoint, no
authority will be able to resist coordinated action. (The Guardian, November 22, 2011).
The cases when calques are used in negative context are more numerous.
They make up 72 % from the whole amount of calques in the sample (Fig. 2.3.).
Consider the following examples:
1) ...in deploying forces to stop a bloodbath.
A joint statement with President Nicolas...affairs committee, admitted he had
been "a doubting Thomas".but
paid tribute to what he called "a remarkable diplomatic success". (The
Financial Times, March 18, 2011). The calque-phrase "a doubting
Thomas" means a person who insists on proof before believing in anything.
It possesses a negative shade of meaning, in this very case based upon irony as
the politician admits himself being skeptical. By saying that, nevertheless, he
paid tribute to some deal he emphasizes his skepticism even more.
2) A few streets are still full of Italian restaurants with several
storeys and pedigrees stretching back to Sicily, Puglia or Tuscany, but for
large parts of what was once Little Italy the writing is on the wall.
And it is in Chinese. (The Times, February 9, 2011). The phrase bears a stamp of
negative meaning, perception of which evokes the realization of something
inevitable, destined to happen. In this case it conveys that, however, there are
some traits of Italian culture and style in its streets, they are only
reminiscent of the past Italy, now it is substituted for Chinese trademarks.
3) Mr. Blanchard's book is not a collection of truisms and pseudo-truisms
- it is a practical guide that many have found helpful. But in the strange
world of management writing, it is only a short step from the sublime to the
ridiculous. (The Financial
Times, May 7, 2007). The calque-sentence "it is only a short step from the
sublime to the ridiculous" was said by Napoleon in the year of retreat
from Moscow. It renders that the fringe between the perfection and ridiculous
is very thin and it is very easy to cross it and fail. The calque is used by
the author to lay emphasis on the fact that even though one has reached
success, failure can still happen.
|
|
4) The
Church of England has dismissed as "nonsense" reports that some of its
schools were "brainwashing" children during religious
education lessons. (The Guardian, July 30,
2004). The word-calque "brainwashing" – persuasion by propaganda - has been used in a bit unusual environment
as it is usually associated with politics. Together with the image of
religion the calque creates an accumulation of opposite ideas which makes the
statement more vivid in order to shock the reader with such a controversial
statement.
5) A speedboat breezes through as if to mock this slow and Sisyphean
labour. There are mishaps and forgotten buckets. and a seagull bursts into
the picture just as an ideal symmetry of structure is achieved. Every moment is
surprising, a series of sight gags sustained over more than an hour in a
masterpiece of comic timing. (The Observer, June 24, 2012).
Now we will consider calques which have
been illustrated in previous classifications as the object of the research is
one sample of articles.
6)
'Devil's Advocate’ and defender of
Saddam Hussein is arrested. (The Independent, February 16,2010).
7)
‘Amyloidosis hang over my head
like the sword of Damocles. (The Times,
November 13, 2010).
8) People power has seen off another Tesco -
but is a pyrrhic victory in store? (The Telegraph, November 17, 2011).
9) Bloody Sunday
paras acted 'like Nazi stormtroopers', says colonel. (The
Times, June 17,2010).
10)
The tabloidesque search for scapegoats
- and for panaceas - in an age of insecurity is inevitable. (The Guardian, May 3, 2013 ).
All the above-mentioned
examples of the usage of calques confirm our opinion chat they may be used in
positive meaning in such a way creating elevated style or in negative which means that the story acquires
some connotation (irony, sarcasm etc) and becomes more emotionally colored and vivid. The
usage of calques strikes the reader by its unexpectedness.
Figure 2.3. Type of
meaning
|
|
2.4. Classification of Calques in Accord
with their Structure
In the theoretical
part we have divided calques into word-calques, phrasal calques
and sentence-calques. In
order to see which type of calques authors use more in the articles we have analyzed the
articles from the structural point of view. As seen from all the above mentioned examples
all structural types of calques are used in the articles. The results of
analysis are given in Figure 2.4. Structural
analysis.
Calques consisting of one word make up 18 %
of all instances (Fig. 2.4.). For example such calques as
stormtroopers, Blackshirt, scapegoat, gospel, superman, brainwashing.
The bulk
of all newspapers contain phrasal calques - 56 % (Fig. 2.4.). Consider the
following examples:
vicious circle, blue blood, mother
tongue, a path between Skylla and Charybdis, cloud cuckoo land, a land of milk
and honey, sour grapes etc. Besides words and phrases we
have also found cases of calques of sentence level- 26% (Fig. - 2.4.). For instance:
"Fortune favours the bold."
the Bank of Canada governor said today, exhorting Canadian
businesses to invest and engage with the
new 'multi-polar'
world, and promising to deliver price stability in return. (The Financial Times, June 16, 2010). This was a night on which
England combined the sublime with the ridiculous
— and the sublime won out, thanks to a late goal made by Theo Walcott and
executed in wonderful fashion by Danny Welbeck. (The
Times, June 15, 2012).
Abandon
hope of reading anything remotely original, all ye who enter here. That pre-emptive warning may be implicit in
the byline above, but I make it explicit today because what you are about to
enter is the tragically unlost Danteian tenth circle of hell that is Mr. Tony
Blair.
(The Independent, July 18, 2012). After Greenspan, the deluge? (The Observer, October 30, 2005).
The cases of usage
calque-words and sentences (quotations, sayings, proverbs) are less frequent
than phrasal calques.
 |
CONCLUSIONS
As a result of
analyzing the usage of calques of different origin and structure in British
newspaper discourse we have come to the following conclusions.
In spite of the
fact that newspaper style is considered to be forma] in its nature, one more specific feature can be added - the usage of
calques in particular aimed to make articles emotionally colored, vivid in
meaning, possessing a definite shade of meaning,
thus to attract the reader’s attention to the article, make him
read it. Therefore, linguistic features of newspaper style, i.e. calques,
perform an extralinguistic function of the influence on the reader.
The frequent
occurrence of calques in the news stories can be explained by the fact that the
predominant part of calques tend to become stable units of vocabulary.
Alongside with this specific feature of calques, there exist numerous instances
of calques which preserve the originality and novelty, and noticeably stand out
against a background of native vocabulary for the things, objects, ideas,
concepts and realia they denote as they were introduced into target language
due to the absence of the correspondent concept.
There is a great
number of definitions and classifications of calques which makes it difficult
to adhere to one of them and completely reject others. In our research we stick
to the point that calques are words and expressions formed from the material
already existing in the British language but according to patterns taken from
another language, by the way of literal, morpheme-for-morpheme or word-for-word
translation.
Having read the British
newspapers we selected 50 articles which contain calques.
Our first
classification is based on the principal of the position of calques in article.
Calques used in headlines, subheads and at the beginning of articles serve to
attract the reader’s attention to the article, interest them in further reading.
Calques used in the middle and especially at the end of articles are means of
summing up the information given and accentuate the attention of the reader,
having some impression after reading it.
Researching into
semantic side of calques, we were both interested in direct and figurative
meanings of calques used by British authors.
As far as calques
used in the direct meaning are concerned, the percentage of their usage is
rather low in comparison with those used figuratively. It is explained by the
purpose with which they are used - to make articles emotionally colored. Besides, phrasal calques and sentence-calques
are used more frequently than for example word-calques.
Taking into
account the type of meaning of calques, while analyzing we took
into consideration not only the context of the article but also the shade of
meaning which implied the author. Our classification is based on the division
of calques with positive meaning, which create a so-called elevated style, and
those with negative meaning. The latter implies different types of connotation,
for example sarcasm, irony.
The usage of different
structural calques, in direct and figurative meanings, in spheres distinct from
historical factors of their appearing, in newspaper discourse serves to make a
deep impact on the reader.
LIST OF LITERATURE
1. Антрушина
Г.Б. Лексикология
английского языка : [навч. посіб.) /
Г.Б. Антрушина, О.В. Афанасьева, Н.Н. Морозова. - М.:
Дрофа, 2004. - 288 с.
2. Балл и Ш. Французская
стилстика / Ш. Балли. - М., 1961.
3. Белодед И. К. Язык и
идеологическая борьба / И.К. Белодед. - К., 1974.
4. Булаховський Л. Нариси з
загального мовознавства. Серія друга // Л.А.Булаховський. Вибрані праці: У 5-й
т. - К., 1975-1983. - Т. 1. - Київ, 1975.
5. Гвенцадзе
М.А. Коммуникативная
лингвистика и типология текста / М.А. Гвенцадзе.—Тбилиси, 1986.-315 с.
6. Ефремов.Л.П. Основы
теории лексического калькирования / Л.П. Ефремов.
- Алма-Ата, 1974.
7. Знаменская Т.А.
Стилистика английского языка. Основы курса /
Т. А. Знаменская. -
М.: Едиториал УРСС, 2005. - 208 с.
8. Зорівчак Р. П. «Фразеологічна одиниця як перекладознавча
категорія / Р. П. Зорівчак.
Львів: Вища пік. при ЛДУ, 1983.
9. Кунин А.В. «Фразеология
современного английского языка / А.В. Кунин. -
Москваб 1972. - 488 с.
10.
Панько Т. І. Українське термінознавство :
підруч. для студ. гуманітар. спец. вищ. навч.
закл. / Т. І. Панько, I. М. Кочан,
Г. П. Мацюк. — Львів : Світ, 1994. — 216 с.
11. Раевская, Н. Н.
Лексикология английского языка [Текст] : учеб, для студ. фак. иностранных
яз. / Н. Н. Раевская. -
К.: Высшая школа, 1979. - 304 с.
12. Современный
русский язык: Лексикология. Фразеология. Лексикография: Хрестоматия и учебные
задания/ Сост. Л.А. Ивашко, И.С. Луговинова, Д.М. Поцепня, М.А. Тарасова,
М.Ю. Жукова, Е.И. Зиновьева, М.А. Шахматова; отв. ред. Д.М. Поцепня. - 2-е
изд., перераб. и доп. - СПб.: Филологический факультет СПбГУ, 2002.-496 с.
13. Шанский Н.М. Русский
язык. Лексика. Словообразование / Н.М. Шанский. - М., 1975.
14.
Arnold I.V. The English Word. - M: 1973. - 296 p.
15.
Arlotto, A. Introduction to Historical Linguistics. -
Houghton Mifflin, 1971. - 274 p.
16.
Bard R. Newswriting Guide: A Handbook for Student
Reporters. - iUniverse. 2005.
17.
Betz, Werner. Lehnwörter und
Lehnpragungen im Vor- und Frühdeubchen. Deutsche
Wortgeschichte, vol. 1. Eds. F. Maurer and F. Stroh. – 
Berlin: n. p., 1959.
Berlin: n. p., 1959.
18.
Bloomfield, L. Language. - New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1933.
19.
Capuz Juan Gomez. Towards a
Typological Classification of Linguistic Borrowing (Illustrated with Anglicisms
in Romance Languages). - Universität de Valencia,
1997.Galperin I. R. Stylistics. - Moscow, 1981. - 334 p.
20. Deroy, L. L’emprunt linguistique. - Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1980.
21. Galperin I.R. Stylistics. - Moscow, 1981. -
334 p.
22.
Garcia, O., Otheguy R. English
Across Cultures, Cultures Across English: A Reader in Cross-Cultural Communication.
- Mouton de Gruyter, 1989.
23. Ginzburg R. S.,
Khidekel S. S., Knyazeva G. Y., Sankin A. A. A Course in Modem English Lexicology. - Moscow, 1979.
24.
Haugen, E. The
Analysis of Linguistic Borrowing. Vol. 26, No. 2 (Apr. - Jim., 1950). - Linguistic Society of America. -
pp. 210-231.
25.
Weinreich, U. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. - The Hague:
Mouton, 1968.
26.
Zhylko N.M.
English Lexicology. Theoretical course. - Nizhyn: Nizhyn State University. - 2010. - 159 p.
27.
Zindler, H. Anglizismen in der deutsche Presse nach 1945. Kiel: n. p., 1959.
LIST OF
DICTIONARIES
28.
Editors of the American Heritage
Dictionaries. The American Heritage dictionary of the English Language, Fifth
Edition. – Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Trade. – 2011.
29.
Hornby A. S. Oxford Advanced Learner’s of Current English. – Oxford University
Press. -2006.
30. M. Pei, Glossary of Linguistic Terminology. –
Columba Press. – 1966.
31.
Trask L. A Student’s Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. – Routledge.-
1997.
33. http://www.
thefreedictionary.com
34. http://en.vikipedia.org
35. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/
LIST OF ILLLUSTRATIVE LITERATURE
38. The Daily
Telegraph (2010).
39. The Financial Times (2007, 2008, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013).
40. The Guardian (2004, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013).
41. The Independent (2010,
2011, 2012, 2013).
44. The Mirror (2004,
2009).
45. The Morning Star
(2013).
46. The Observer (2002,
2005, 2012, 2013).
47. The Sunday Times (2003,
2011).
48. The Telegraph (2010,
2011, 2012, 2013).
49. The Times (2010, 2011,
2012, 2013).
Supplement
1.
A bad wife is a ruin of her husband - Japanese proverb.
2.
A bad beginning
makes a bad ending - Euripides.
3.
A
cloud cuckoo land - a state of unreal, imaginary affairs (from an
imaginary mid-air city in the ancient Greek comedy of The Birds, by
Aristophanes (414 BC).
4. A cross to bear/ carry - something you must do or
continue with even though you are suffering.
5. A dog in the manger - a person who will not share
something he does not use or need.
6. A doubting Thomas - a person with skeptical
attitude.
7. A drop in the bucket/a drop in the ocean - an amount of
something that is too small or unimportant to make any real difference to a
situation
8. A fifth
column - a secret
subversive group that works against a country or organization from the inside.
9.
A good Samaritan - someone who helps another
in need with no thought of reward.
10.
A journey of a
thousand miles begins with one step/ It is the first step that costs. – Lao Tzu.
11.
A labour of Sisyphus/ a Sisyphean labour - actually or
seemingly endless and futile.
12.
A land
of milk and honey - an imaginary place where there is more than enough
of everything.
13.
A Procrustean
bed - tending or
designed to produce conformity by violent or ruthless methods.
14.
A prodigal
son - someone
rebelling and living a dissolute life, then returning to home and right living.
15.
A Pyrrhic victory - a victory that is not worth
winning because you have suffered so much to achieve it.
16.
A sound mind in a sound body – Lat. Mens sana in corpora sano.
17.
A sword of Damocles - a situation where something
bad is likely to happen very soon.
18. A Trojan horse - someone or
something that attacks the group or organization it belongs to.
19. An Achilles'
heel/Achilles heel - a small fault in a person or system which
might cause them to fail.
20. An apple of discord - something attractive that
causes envy and quarrels among people who think they deserve it.
21. An eye for an eye (a tooth for a tooth) - equal punishment or revenge.
22. Abandon hope, all ye who enter here - English
translation of the words on the gate of Hell in Dante’s Inferno.
23. All for one, one for all - from The Three
Musketeers by Alexandre Dumas.
24. Art is long life is short - Lat. ars longa vita
brevis.
25.
As you sow, so shall
you reap/ as a man sows, so shall he reap - things will happen to you
good or bad, according to how you behave.
26. Battling windmills - fighting pointless battles or
imaginary enemies.
27. Beard the lion (in his
den) - confront a danger, take a
risk.
28. Beat swords into plowshares - changed from war to peace.
29. Between Scylla and Charybdis - in a position where avoidance of one danger exposes one to
another danger.
30. Beware of Greeks bearing gifts - do not trust an
opponent who offers to do something nice for you.
31.
Beware the fury of a
patient man – Остерігайся люті
хворої людини.quotation from
Publicists Syrus, a Latin writer of maxims in the 1st century BC.
32.
Bury the hatchet - stop arguing or
fighting, throw down your arms.
33.
By the sweat of your brow - by hard
work.
34.
Caesars wife must be
above suspicion - the associates of public figures must not even be
suspected of wrongdoing.
35.
Cast pearls
before swine - waste something valuable
on someone who doesn't appreciate it.
Cast pearls
before swine - waste something valuable
on someone who doesn't appreciate it.
36. Cast/throw the first stone - be the first to blame
someone.
37.
Cast
your bread upon the waters - act generous because you feel it is right and not
because you expect a reward.
38.
Cleanse/clean
up the Augean stables - purge a situation, etc. of corruption, immorality,
etc, take drastic reform; rid of corrupt practice.
39.
Cry wolf
- warn of danger
that is not there, raise a false alarm.
40.
Cut
the Gordian knot - solve the problem by radical means.
41. Daily bread - daily
necessities.
42.Divide and rule/divide and conquer/divide and
govern - a translation of the Latin maxim, Divide et impera.
43.Even the prayers of an ant reach to Heaven - God hears all
living beings. Japanese proverb from the Shinto religion.
44.
Every
man is the architect of his own fortune - your own decisions and your
own actions determine what your life will be like.
45.
Fortune favours the bold/brave -
Lat. Audentis Fortuna
iuvat.
46. Genius is eternal patience —
Michelangelo.
47.Man
proposes, God disposes - people may make plans, but they cannot control the
outcome of their plans.
48.Nature
abhors a vacuum - empty spaces become filled very quickly
(Aristotle).
49.Necessity
is the mother of invention - our needs cause us to invent devices. Based on the
line from The Republic written by Plato.
50.Never
speak ill of the dead - show respect to people who have died by not saying
anything bad about them. Lat. De
mortuis nil nisi bonum.
51. Pride
goes/comes before a fall - you lose self-respect before you do an evil deed.
52. Sour grapes - feeling negative because
you did not win.
53. Spare the rod and spoil the child -lack of
discipline will make a spoilt brat out of a child.
54.
The blind leading the blind - the leader is ignorant or incompetent.
55.
The die is cast - Julius Caesar’s words in Latin, alea iacta est, when he crossed the river
Rubicon.
56. The Promised Land - any longed-for place where
one expects to find greater happiness or fulfillment.
57. The salt of the earth - common people;
honest, hard-working people.
58. The scapegoat - a person who
gets stuck with the blame; a whipping boy.
59. The spirit is willing, but the
flesh is weak - Bible.
60. The truth shall make you free -
from Lat. veritas vos liberabit.
61. The voice of the
people is the voice of God – Lat. Vox populi, Vox Dei.
62. There is truth in wine - Lat. In vino veritas.
63. To understand is to forgive - French Comprendre, e’est pardoner (De Stael).
64.
With the first glass a man drinks
wine, with the second glass the wine drinks the wine, with the third glass the
wine drinks the man - a
Japanese proverb.
65. You
cannot serve God and mammon - you
cannot both be a good person and dedicate yourself to making money.
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